Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
Volume 25, Issue 6 , Pages 885-896 , December 2011

Prolactinoma in pregnancy

  • Mark E. Molitch, MD (Professor of Medicine)

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author Information645 N Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, USA. Tel.: +1 312 503 4130; Fax: +1 312 926 8693l.

References 

  1. Sauder SE, Frager M, Case GD, et al. Abnormal patterns of pulsatile luteinizing hormone secretion in women with hyperprolactinemia and amenorrhea: responses to bromocriptine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1984;59:941–948
  2. Winters SJ, Troen P. Altered pulsatile secretion of luteinizing hormone in hypogonadal men with hyperprolactinaemia. Clin Endocrinol. 1984;21:257–263
  3. Bohnet HG, Dahlen HG, Wuttke W, et al. Hyperprolactinemic anovulatory syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1976;42:132–143
  4. Klibanski A, Beitins IZ, Zervas NT, et al. Alpha-subunit and gonadotropin responses to luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone in hyperprolactinemic women before and after bromocriptine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1983;56:774–780
  5. Van Campenhout J, Papas S, Blanchet P, et al. Pituitary responses to synthetic luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone in thirty-four cases of amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea associated with galactorrhea. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977;127:723–728
  6. Biller BJ, Boyd AE, Molitch ME. Galactorrhea syndromes. In:  Post KD,  Jackson IMD,  Reichlin S editor. The Pituitary Adenoma. New York: Plenum Medical Book Company; 1980;p. 65–90
  7. Glass MR, Shaw RW, Butt WR, et al. An abnormality of oestrogen feedback in amenorrhoea-galactorrhoea. Br Med J. 1975;3:274–275
  8. Feltus FA, Groner B, Melner MH. Stat5-mediated regulation of the human type II 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/delta5-delta4 isomerase gene: activation by prolactin. Mol Endocrinol. 1999;13:1084–1093
  9. Ramasharma K, Li CH. Human pituitary and placental hormones control human insulin-like growth factor II secretion in human granulosa cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1987;84:2643–2647
  10. Demura R, Ono M, Demura H, et al. Prolactin directly inhibits basal as well as gonadotropin-stimulated secretion of progesterone and 17 beta-estradiol in the human ovary. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982;54:1246–1250
  11. Dorrington JH, Gore-Langton RE. Antigonadal action of prolactin: further studies on the mechanism of inhibition of follicle-stimulating hormone-induced aromatase activity in rat granulosa cell cultures. Endocrinology. 1982;110:1701–1707
  12. Krasnow JS, Hickey GJ, Richards JS. Regulation of aromatase mRNA and estradiol biosynthesis in rat ovarian granulosa and luteal cells by prolactin. Mol Endocrinol. 1990;4:13–22
  13. Kemmann E, Jones JR. Hyperprolactinemia and primary amenorrhea. Obstet Gynecol. 1979;54:692–694
  14. Mashchak CA, Kletzky OA, Davajan V, et al. Clinical and laboratory evaluation of patients with primary amenorrhea. Obstet Gynecol. 1981;57:715–721
  15. Pepperell RJ. Prolactin and reproduction. Fertil Steril. 1981;35:267–274
  16. Molitch ME, Reichlin S. Hyperprolactinemic disorders. Dis Mon. 1982;28:1–58
  17. Seppala M, Ranta T, Hirvonen E. Hyperprolactinaemia and luteal insufficiency. Lancet. 1976;1:229–230
  18. Souter I, Baltagi LM, Toth TL, et al. Prevalence of hyperprolactinemia and abnormal magnetic resonance imaging findings in a population with infertility. Fertil Steril. 2010;94:1159–1162
  19. Skrabanek P, McDonald D, de Valera E, et al. Plasma prolactin in amenorrhoea, infertility, and other disorders: a retrospective study of 608 patients. Ir J Med Sci. 1980;149:236–245
  20. Huang KE, Bonfiglio TA, Muechler EK. Transient hyperprolactinemia in infertile women with luteal phase deficiency. Obstet Gynecol. 1991;78:651–655
  21. Casanueva FF, Molitch ME, Schlechte JA, et al. Guidelines of the Pituitary Society for the diagnosis and management of prolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol. 2006;65:265–273
  22. Melmed S, Casanueva FF, Hoffman AR, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of hyperprolactinemia: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:273–288
  23. Krupp P, Monka C. Bromocriptine in pregnancy: safety aspects. Klin Wochenschr. 1987;65:823–827
  24. Krupp P, Monka C, Richter K. The safety aspects of infertility treatments. Program of the Second World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 1988;Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. p. 9
  25. Raymond JP, Goldstein E, Konopka P, et al. Follow-up of children born of bromocriptine-treated mothers. Horm Res. 1985;22:239–246
  26. Canales ES, Garcia IC, Ruiz JE, et al. Bromocriptine as prophylactic therapy in prolactinoma during pregnancy. Fertil Steril. 1981;36:524–526
  27. Konopka P, Raymond JP, Merceron RE, et al. Continuous administration of bromocriptine in the prevention of neurological complications in pregnant women with prolactinomas. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983;146:935–938
  28. Ruiz-Velasco V, Tolis G. Pregnancy in hyperprolactinemic women. Fertil Steril. 1984;41:793–805
  29. Ferrari C, Paracchi A, Mattei AM, et al. Cabergoline in the long-term therapy of hyperprolactinemic disorders. Acta Endocrinol. 1992;126:489–494
  30. Webster J, Piscitelli G, Polli A, et al. For the cabergoline comparative study group. A comparison of cabergoline and bromocriptine in the treatment of hyperprolactinemic amenorrhea. Cabergoline Comparative Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:904–909
  31. Ciccarelli E, Grottoli S, Razzzore P, et al. Long-term treatment with cabergoline, a new long-lasting ergoline derivative, in idiopathic or tumorous hyperprolactinaemia and outcome of drug-induced pregnancy. J Endocrinol Invest. 1997;20:547–551
  32. Cannavò S, Curtò L, Squadrito S, et al. Cabegoline: a first-choice treatment in patients with previously untreatd prolactin-secreting pituitary adenoma. J Endocrinol Invest. 1999;22:354–359
  33. Verhelst J, Abs R, Maiter D, et al. Cabergoline in the treatment of hyperprolactinemia: a study in 455 patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:2518–2522
  34. Ricci E, Parazzini F, Motta T, et al. Pregnancy outcome after cabergoline treatment in early weeks of gestation. Reprod Toxicol. 2002;16:791–793
  35. Bronstein MD, Salgado LR, Musolino NR. Medical management of pituitary adenomas: the special case of management of the pregnant woman. Pituitary. 2002;5:99–107
  36. Gillam MP, Fideleff H, Boquete HR, et al. Prolactin excess: treatment and toxicity. Pediat Endocrinol Rev. 2004;2(Suppl. 1):108–114
  37. Álvarez C, Alonso-Muriel I, García G, et al. Implantation is apparently unaffected by the dopamine agonist cabergoline when administered to prevent ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome in women undergoing assisted reproduction treatment: a pilot study. Human Reprod. 2007;22:3210–3214
  38. Colao A, Abs R, Barcena DG, et al. Pregnancy outcomes following cabergoline treatment: extended results from a 12-year observational study. Clin Endocrinol [Oxf]. 2008;68:66–71
  39. Sharma JB, Roy KK, Mohanraj P, et al. Pregnancy outcome in pituitary adenomas. Arch Gynaecol Obstet. 2009;280:401–404
  40. Ono M, Miki N, Amano K, et al. High-dose cabergoline therapy for hyperprolactinemic infertility in women with micro- and macroprolactinomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:2672–2679
  41. Lebbe M, Hubinont C, Bernard P, et al. Outcome of 100 pregnancies initiated under treatment with cabergoline in hyperprolactinaemic women. Clin Endocrinol. 2010;73:236–242
  42. Stalldecker G, Gil MSM, Guitelman MA, et al. Effects of cabergoline on pregnancy and embryo-fetal development: retrospective study on 103 pregnancies and a review of the literature. Pituitary. 2010;13:345–350
  43. Canfield MA, Honelin MA, Yuskiv N, et al. National estimates and race/ethnic specific variation of selected birth defects in the United States, 1999–2001. Birth Defects Res (Part A). 2006;76:746–756
  44. Anon. American Pregnancy Association Statistics. www.americanpregnancy.org/main/statistics.html accessed April, 2011.
  45. Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Sutton PD, et al. Births: final data for 2007. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2010;58:1–85
  46. Webster J. A comparative review of the tolerability profiles of dopamine agonists in the treatment of hyperprolactinaemia and inhibition of lactation. Drug Saf. 1996;14:228–238
  47. Rigg LA, Lein A, Yen SS. Pattern of increase in circulating prolactin levels during human gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977;129:454–456
  48. Tyson JE, Friesen HG. Factors influencing the secretion of human prolactin and growth hormone in menstrual and gestational women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1973;116:377–387
  49. Poindexter AN, Buttram VC, Besch PK, et al. Circulating prolactin levels. I. normal females. Int J Fertil. 1977;22:1–5
  50. Scheithauer BW, Sano T, Kovacs KT, et al. The pituitary gland in pregnancy: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical study of 69 cases. Mayo Clin Proc. 1990;65:461–474
  51. Gonzalez JG, Elizondo G, Saldivar D, et al. Pituitary gland growth during normal pregnancy: an in vivo study using magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Med. 1988;85:217–220
  52. Elster AD, Sanders TG, Vines FS, et al. Size and shape of the pituitary gland during pregnancy and post partum: measurement with MR imaging. Radiology. 1991;181:531–535
  53. Dinç H, Esen F, Demirci A, et al. Pituitary dimensions and volume measurements in pregnancy and post partum. MR assessment. Acta Radiol. 1998;39:64–69
  54. Gemzell C, Wang CF. Outcome of pregnancy in women with pituitary adenoma. Fertil Steril. 1979;31:363–372
  55. Molitch ME. Pregnancy and the hyperprolactinemic woman. N Engl J Med. 1985;312:1364–1370
  56. Holmgren U, Bergstrand G, Hagenfeldt K, et al. Women with prolactinoma – effect of pregnancy and lactation on serum prolactin and on tumour growth. Acta Endocrinol. 1986;111:452–459
  57. Ampudia X, Puig-Domingo M, Schwarzstein D, et al. Outcome and long-term effects of pregnancy in women with hyperprolactinemia. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1992;46:101–107
  58. Kupersmith MJ, Rosenberg C, Kleinberg D. Visual loss in pregnant women with pituitary adenomas. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121:473–477
  59. Rossi AM, Vilska S, Heinonen PK. Outcome of pregnancies in women with treated or untreated hyperprolactinemia. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1995;63:143–146
  60. Badawy SZA, Marziale JC, Rosenbaum AE, et al. The long-term effects of pregnancy and bromocriptine tratment on prolactinomas – the value of radiologic studies. Early Pregnancy: Biology and Medicine. 1997;3:306–311
  61. Mallmann ES, Nagcl A, Spritzer PM. Pregnancy in hyperprolactinemic women. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2002;81:265–267
  62. Ylikorkala O, Kivinen S, Ronnberg L. Bromocriptine treatment during early human pregnancy: effect on the levels of prolactin, sex steroids and placental lactogen. Acta Endocrinol. 1980;95:412–415
  63. Lehmann WD, Musch K, Wolf AS. Influence of bromocriptine on plasma levels of prolactin and steroid hormones in the 20th week of pregnancy. J Endocrinol Invest. 1979;2:251–255
  64. Espersen T, Ditzel J. Pregnancy and delivery under bromocriptine therapy. Lancet. 1977;2:985–986
  65. Laloi-Michelin M, Ciraru-Vigneron N, Meas T. Cabergoline treatment of pregnant women with macroprolactinomas. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2007;99:61–62
  66. Liu C, Tyrrell JB. Successful treatment of a large macroprolactinoma with cabergoline during pregnancy. Pituitary. 2001;4:179–185
  67. Banerjee A, Wynne K, Tan T, et al. High dose cabergoline therapy for a resistant macroprolactinoma during pregnancy. Clin Endocrinol. 2009;70:812–813
  68. Crosignani PG, Mattei AM, Scarduelli C, et al. Is pregnancy the best treatment for hyperprolactinaemia?. Hum Reprod. 1989;4:910–912
  69. Samaan NA, Schultz PN, Leavens TA, et al. Pregnancy after treatment in patients with prolactinoma: operation versus bromocriptine. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986;155:1300–1305
  70. Ikegami H, Aono T, Koizumi K, et al. Relationship between the methods of treatment for prolactinomas and the puerperal lactation. Fertil Steril. 1987;47:867–869
  71. Gillam MP, Molitch MP, Lombardi G, et al. Advances in the treatment of prolactinomas. Endocrine Revs. 2006;27:485–534
  72. Laws ER, Fode NC, Randall RV, et al. Pregnancy following transsphenoidal resection of prolactin-secreting pituitary tumors. J Neurosurg. 1983;58:685–688
  73. McGarrigle HH, Sarris S, Little V, et al. Induction of ovulation with clomiphene and human chorionic gonadotrophin in women with hyperprolactinaemic amenorrhoea. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1978;85:692–697
  74. Radwanska E, McGarrigle HH, Little V, et al. Induction of ovulation in women with hyperprolactinemic amenorrhea using clomiphene and human chorionic gonadotropin or bromocriptine. Fertil Steril. 1979;32:187–192
  75. Littley MD, Shalet SM, Beardwell CG, et al. Hypopituitarism following external radiotherapy for pituitary tumours in adults. Q J Med. 1989;70:145–160
  76. Narita O, Kimura T, Suganuma N, et al. Relationship between maternal prolactin levels during pregnancy and lactation in women with pituitary adenoma. Nippon Sanka Fujinka Gakkai Zasshi. 1985;37:758–762
  77. Divers WA, Yen SS. Prolactin-producing microadenomas in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1983;62:425–429
  78. Kok RD, deVries MM, Heerschap A, et al. Absence of harmful effects of magnetic resonance exposure at 1.5 T in utero during the third trimester of pregnancy: a follow-up study. Magnet Res Imaging. 2004;22:851–854
  79. DeWilde JP, Rivers AW, Price DL. A review of the current use of magnetic resonance imaging in pregnancy and safety implications for the fetus. Prog Biophys Mol Biol. 2005;87:335–353
  80. Webb JAW, Thomsen HS, Morcos SK Members of the Contrast Media Safety Committee of European Society of Urogenital Radiology. The use of iodinated and gadolinium contrast media during pregnancy and lactation. Eur Radiol. 2005;15:1234–1240
  81. Garcia-Bournissen F, Shrim A, Koren G. Safety of gadolinium during pregnancy. Can Fam Phys. 2006;52:309–311
  82. Belchetz PE, Carty A, Clearkin LG, et al. Failure of prophylactic surgery to avert massive pituitary expansion in pregnancy. Clin Endocrinol. 1986;25:325–330
  83. Brodsky JB, Cohen EN, Brown BW, et al. Surgery during pregnancy and fetal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1980;138:1165–1167
  84. Cohen-Kerem R, Railton C, Oren D, et al. Pregnancy outcome following non-obstetric surgical intervention. Am J Surg. 2005;190:467–473
  85. Molitch ME. Medical treatment of prolactinomas. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1999;28:143–170

PII: S1521-690X(11)00064-9

doi: 10.1016/j.beem.2011.05.011

Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
Volume 25, Issue 6 , Pages 885-896 , December 2011