Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
Volume 21, Issue 1 , Pages 43-68 , March 2007

Imaging of neuroendocrine tumours (CT/MR/US)

  • Andrea G. Rockall (Consultant Radiologist)

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +44 20 7601 8864; Fax: +44 20 7601 8868.

References 

  1. Metz DC. Diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Seminars in Gastrointestinal Disease. 1995;6(2):67–78
  2. Kent RB, van Heerden JA, Weiland LH. Nonfunctioning islet cell tumors. Annals of Surgery. 1981;193(2):185–190
  3. Stark DD, Moss AA, Goldberg HI, Deveney CW. CT of pancreatic islet cell tumors. Radiology. 1984;150(2):491–494
  4. Aldridge MC, Williamson RCN. Surgery of endocrine tumours of the pancreas. In:  Lynn J,  Bloom SR editor. Surgical Endocrinology. Oxford, U.K: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1996;p. 503–518
  5. van Heerden JA, Grant CS, Czako PF, et al. Occult functioning insulinomas: which localizing studies are indicated?. Surgery. 1992;112(6):1010–1014
  6. Service FJ, Dale AJ, Elveback LR, Jiang NS. Insulinoma: clinical and diagnostic features of 60 consecutive cases. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 1976;51(7):417–429
  7. Berends FJ, Cuesta MA, Kazemier G, et al. Laparoscopic detection and resection of insulinomas. Surgery. 2000;128(3):386–391
  8. Alexander HR, Jensen RT. Pancreatic endocrine tumors. In:  Devita VT,  Hellman S,  Rosenberg SA editor. Cancer. Principles and Practice of Oncology. Philadelphia: Lippincott/Raven; 2001;p. 1788–1813
  9. Yu F, Venzon DJ, Serrano J, et al. Prospective study of the clinical course, prognostic factors, causes of death, and survival in patients with long-standing Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 1999;17(2):615–630
  10. King CM, Reznek RH, Dacie JE, Wass JA. Imaging islet cell tumours. Clinical Radiology. 1994;49(5):295–303
  11. Hammond PJ, Jackson JA, Bloom SR. Localization of pancreatic endocrine tumours. Clinical Endocrinology. 1994;40(1):3–14
  12. Vinik AI, Strodel WE, Eckhauser FE, et al. Somatostatinomas, PPomas, neurotensinomas. Seminars in Oncology. 1987;14(3):263–281
  13. Grant CS. Surgical aspects of hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America. 1999;28(3):533–554
  14. Bottger TC, Weber W, Beyer J, Junginger T. Value of tumor localization in patients with insulinoma. World Journal of Surgery. 1990;14(1):107–112
  15. Oshikawa O, Tanaka S, Ioka T, et al. Dynamic sonography of pancreatic tumors: comparison with dynamic CT. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2002;178(5):1133–1137
  16. Ueno N, Tomiyama T, Tano S, et al. Utility of endoscopic ultrasonography with color Doppler function for the diagnosis of islet cell tumor. The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 1996;91(4):772–776
  17. Rosch T, Lightdale CJ, Botet JF, et al. Localization of pancreatic endocrine tumors by endoscopic ultrasonography. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1992;326(26):1721–1726
  18. Fein J, Gerdes H. Localization of islet cell tumors by endoscopic ultrasonography. Gastroenterology. 1992;103(2):711–712
  19. Norton JA, Cromack DT, Shawker TH, et al. Intraoperative ultrasonographic localization of islet cell tumors. A prospective comparison to palpation. Annals of Surgery. 1988;207(2):160–168
  20. Kalra MK, Maher MM, Mueller PR, Saini S. State-of-the-art imaging of pancreatic neoplasms. The British Journal of Radiology. 2003;76(912):857–865
  21. Fidler JL, Fletcher JG, Reading CC, et al. Preoperative detection of pancreatic insulinomas on multiphasic helical CT. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2003;181(3):775–780
  22. King AD, Ko GT, Yeung VT, et al. Dual phase spiral CT in the detection of small insulinomas of the pancreas. The British Journal of Radiology. 1998;71(841):20–23
  23. Buetow PC, Parrino TV, Buck JL, et al. Islet cell tumors of the pancreas: pathologic-imaging correlation among size, necrosis and cysts, calcification, malignant behavior, and functional status. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1995;165(5):1175–1179
  24. Stafford-Johnson DB, Francis IR, Eckhauser FE, et al. Dual-phase helical CT of nonfunctioning islet cell tumors. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography. 1998;22(2):335–339
  25. Van Hoe L, Gryspeerdt S, Marchal G, et al. Helical CT for the preoperative localization of islet cell tumors of the pancreas: value of arterial and parenchymal phase images. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1995;165(6):1437–1439
  26. Chung MJ, Choi BI, Han JK, et al. Functioning islet cell tumor of the pancreas. Localization with dynamic spiral CT. Acta Radiologica. 1997;38(1):135–138
  27. Ichikawa T, Peterson MS, Federle MP, et al. Islet cell tumor of the pancreas: biphasic CT versus MR imaging in tumor detection. Radiology. 2000;216(1):163–171
  28. Ahrendt SA, Komorowski RA, Demeure MJ, et al. Cystic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: is preoperative diagnosis possible?. Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery. 2002;6(1):66–74
  29. Balci NC, Semelka RC. Radiologic features of cystic, endocrine and other pancreatic neoplasms. European Journal of Radiology. 2001;38(2):113–119
  30. Pfannenberg AC, Burkart C, Krober SM, et al. Dual-phase multidetector thin-section CT in detecting duodenal gastrinoma. Abdominal Imaging. 2005;30(5):543–547
  31. Kay CL, Gordon L. Multiple duodenal gastrinomas demonstrated with spiral CT. Clinical Radiology. 1997;52(6):481
  32. Zhang T, Zhao Y, Xu X, et al. The diagnosis and treatment of gastrinoma: report of 17 cases. Chinese Medical Sciences Journal. 1999;14(3):185–188
  33. Nikou GC, Toubanakis C, Nikolaou P, et al. VIPomas: an update in diagnosis and management in a series of 11 patients. Hepatogastroenterology. 2005;52(64):1259–1265
  34. Gouya H, Vignaux O, Augui J, et al. CT, endoscopic sonography, and a combined protocol for preoperative evaluation of pancreatic insulinomas. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2003;181(4):987–992
  35. Wank SA, Doppman JL, Miller DL, et al. Prospective study of the ability of computed axial tomography to localize gastrinomas in patients with Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. Gastroenterology. 1987;92(4):905–912
  36. Maton PN, Miller DL, Doppman JL, et al. Role of selective angiography in the management of patients with Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. Gastroenterology. 1987;92(4):913–918
  37. Doppman JL, Shawker TH, Miller DL. Localization of islet cell tumors. Gastroenterology Clinics of North America. 1989;18(4):793–804
  38. Owen NJ, Sohaib SA, Peppercorn PD, et al. MRI of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. The British Journal of Radiology. 2001;74(886):968–973
  39. Thoeni RF, Mueller-Lisse UG, Chan R, et al. Detection of small, functional islet cell tumors in the pancreas: selection of MR imaging sequences for optimal sensitivity. Radiology. 2000;214(2):483–490
  40. Wang C. Mangafodipir trisodium (MnDPDP)-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of the liver and pancreas. Acta Radiologica. Supplementum. 1998;415:1–31
  41. Semelka RC, Custodio CM, Cem BN, Woosley JT. Neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas: spectrum of appearances on MRI. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 2000;11(2):141–148
  42. Pisegna JR, Doppman JL, Norton JA, et al. Prospective comparative study of ability of MR imaging and other imaging modalities to localize tumors in patients with Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. Digestive Diseases and Sciences. 1993;38(7):1318–1328
  43. Newton JN, Swerdlow AJ, dos SS I, et al. The epidemiology of carcinoid tumours in England and Scotland. British Journal of Cancer. 1994;70(5):939–942
  44. Berge T, Linell F. Carcinoid tumours. Frequency in a defined population during a 12-year period. Acta Pathologica et Microbiologica Scandinavica. Section A, Pathology. 1976;84(4):322–330
  45. Oberg K. Carcinoid syndrome. In:  Grossman AB editors. Clinical Endocrinology. Oxford, U.K: Blackwell Science; 1998;p. 607–620
  46. Jensen RT, Doherty GM. Carcinoid tumors and the carcinoid syndrome. In:  Devita VT,  Hellman S,  Rosenberg SA editor. Cancer. Principles and Practice of Oncology. Philadelphia: Lippincott/Raven; 2001;p. 1813–1833
  47. Capella C, Heitz PU, Hofler H, et al. Revised classification of neuroendocrine tumours of the lung, pancreas and gut. Virchows Archiv. 1995;425(6):547–560
  48. Rindi G, Capella C, Solcia E. Introduction to a revised clinicopathological classification of neuroendocrine tumors of the gastroenteropancreatic tract. The quarterly Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 2000;44(1):13–21
  49. Modlin IM, Lye KD, Kidd M. A 5-decade analysis of 13,715 carcinoid tumors. Cancer. 2003;97(4):934–959
  50. Modlin IM, Sandor A. An analysis of 8305 cases of carcinoid tumors. Cancer. 1997;79(4):813–829
  51. Godwin JD. Carcinoid tumors. An analysis of 2,837 cases. Cancer. 1975;36(2):560–569
  52. Habal N, Sims C, Bilchik AJ. Gastrointestinal carcinoid tumors and second primary malignancies. Journal of Surgical Oncology. 2000;75(4):310–316
  53. Paladugu RR, Benfield JR, Pak HY, et al. Bronchopulmonary Kulchitzky cell carcinomas. A new classification scheme for typical and atypical carcinoids. Cancer. 1985;55(6):1303–1311
  54. Colby TV, Koss MN, Travis WD. Carcinoid and other neuroendocrine tumors. In:  Colby TV,  Koss MN,  Travis WD editor. Atlas of Tumor Pathology: Tumors of the Lower Repiratory Tract. Washington, DC: Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; 1995;p. 287–317
  55. Jeung MY, Gasser B, Gangi A, et al. Bronchial carcinoid tumors of the thorax: spectrum of radiologic findings. Radiographics. 2002;22(2):351–365
  56. Dusmet ME, McKneally MF. Pulmonary and thymic carcinoid tumors. World Journal of Surgery. 1996;20(2):189–195
  57. Nessi R, Basso RP, Basso RS, et al. Bronchial carcinoid tumors: radiologic observations in 49 cases. Journal of Thoracic Imaging. 1991;6(2):47–53
  58. Doppman JL, Pass HI, Nieman LK, et al. Detection of ACTH-producing bronchial carcinoid tumors: MR imaging vs CT. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1991;156(1):39–43
  59. Wollensak G, Herbst EW, Beck A, Schaefer HE. Primary thymic carcinoid with Cushing's syndrome. Virchows Archiv. A, Pathological Anatomy and Histopathology. 1992;420(2):191–195
  60. Brown LR, Aughenbaugh GL, Wick MR, et al. Roentgenologic diagnosis of primary corticotropin-producing carcinoid tumors of the mediastinum. Radiology. 1982;142(1):143–148
  61. Wang DY, Chang DB, Kuo SH, et al. Carcinoid tumours of the thymus. Thorax. 1994;49(4):357–360
  62. Wang WQ, Ye L, Bi YF, et al. Six cases of ectopic ACTH syndrome caused by thymic carcinoid. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation. 2006;29(4):293–297
  63. Brown LR, Aughenbaugh GL. Masses of the anterior mediastinum: CT and MR imaging. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1991;157(6):1171–1180
  64. Fujiwara K, Segawa Y, Takigawa N, et al. Two cases of atypical carcinoid of the thymus. Internal Medicine (Tokyo, Japan). 2000;39(10):834–838
  65. Rindi G, Bordi C, Rappel S, et al. Gastric carcinoids and neuroendocrine carcinomas: pathogenesis, pathology, and behavior. World Journal of Surgery. 1996;20(2):168–172
  66. Binstock AJ, Johnson CD, Stephens DH, et al. Carcinoid tumors of the stomach: a clinical and radiographic study. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2001;176(4):947–951
  67. Burke AP, Thomas RM, Elsayed AM, Sobin LH. Carcinoids of the jejunum and ileum: an immunohistochemical and clinicopathologic study of 167 cases. Cancer. 1997;79(6):1086–1093
  68. Woodard PK, Feldman JM, Paine SS, Baker ME. Midgut carcinoid tumors: CT findings and biochemical profiles. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography. 1995;19(3):400–405
  69. Sugimoto E, Lorelius LE, Eriksson B, Oberg K. Midgut carcinoid tumours. CT appearance. Acta Radiologica. 1995;36(4):367–371
  70. Bader TR, Semelka RC, Chiu VC, et al. MRI of carcinoid tumors: spectrum of appearances in the gastrointestinal tract and liver. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 2001;14(3):261–269
  71. Winburn GB. Multiple rectal carcinoids: a case report. The American Surgeon. 1998;64(12):1200–1203
  72. Wang AY, Ahmad NA. Rectal carcinoids. Current Opinion in Gastroenterology. 2006;22(5):529–535
  73. Koura AN, Giacco GG, Curley SA, et al. Carcinoid tumors of the rectum: effect of size, histopathology, and surgical treatment on metastasis free survival. Cancer. 1997;79(7):1294–1298
  74. Danikas D, Theodorou SJ, Matthews WE, Rienzo AA. Unusually aggressive rectal carcinoid metastasizing to larynx, pancreas, adrenal glands, and brain. The American Surgeon. 2000;66(12):1179–1180
  75. Maeda K, Maruta M, Utsumi T, et al. Minimally invasive surgery for carcinoid tumors in the rectum. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 2002;56(supplement 1):222s–226s
  76. Schindl M, Niederle B, Hafner M, et al. Stage-dependent therapy of rectal carcinoid tumors. World Journal of Surgery. 1998;22(6):628–633
  77. Matsumoto T, Iida M, Suekane H, et al. Endoscopic ultrasonography in rectal carcinoid tumors: contribution to selection of therapy. Gastrointestinal Endoscopy. 1991;37(5):539–542
  78. Janson ET, Holmberg L, Stridsberg M, et al. Carcinoid tumors: analysis of prognostic factors and survival in 301 patients from a referral center. Annals of Oncology. 1997;8(7):685–690
  79. Paulson EK, McDermott VG, Keogan MT, et al. Carcinoid metastases to the liver: role of triple-phase helical CT. Radiology. 1998;206(1):143–150
  80. Wang C, Ahlstrom H, Eriksson B, et al. Uptake of mangafodipir trisodium in liver metastases from endocrine tumors. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 1998;8(3):682–686
  81. Pantongrag-Brown L, Buetow PC, Carr NJ, et al. Calcification and fibrosis in mesenteric carcinoid tumor: CT findings and pathologic correlation. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1995;164(2):387–391
  82. Vasseur B, Cadiot G, Zins M, et al. Peritoneal carcinomatosis in patients with digestive endocrine tumors. Cancer. 1996;78(8):1686–1692
  83. Fukai I, Masaoka A, Fujii Y, et al. Thymic neuroendocrine tumor (thymic carcinoid): a clinicopathologic study in 15 patients. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 1999;67(1):208–211
  84. Khan JH, McElhinney DB, Rahman SB, et al. Pulmonary metastases of endocrine origin: the role of surgery. Chest. 1998;114(2):526–534

PII: S1521-690X(07)00004-8

doi: 10.1016/j.beem.2007.01.003

Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
Volume 21, Issue 1 , Pages 43-68 , March 2007

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution